What Are Lysosomes and How Are They Formed

There are two primary types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Lysosomes are organelles that are found in most animal cells and act as the digesters of a eukaryotic cell. What Are Lysosomes? Lysosomes are spherical membranous sacs of enzymes. These enzymes are acidic hydrolase enzymes that can digest cellular macromolecules. The lysosome membrane helps to keep its internal compartment acidic and separates the digestive enzymes from the rest of the cell. Lysosome enzymes are made by proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum and enclosed within vesicles by the Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes are formed by budding from the Golgi complex. Lysosome Enzymes Lysosomes contain various hydrolytic enzymes (around 50 different enzymes) that are capable of digesting nucleic acids, polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins. The inside of a lysosome is kept acidic as the enzymes within work best in an acidic environment. If a lysosomes integrity is compromised, the enzymes would not be very harmful in the cells neutral cytosol. Lysosome Formation Lysosomes are formed from the fusion of vesicles from the Golgi complex with endosomes. Endosomes are vesicles that are formed by endocytosis as a section of the plasma membrane pinches off and is internalized by the cell. In this process, extracellular material is taken up by the cell. As endosomes mature, they become known as late endosomes. Late endosomes fuse with transport vesicles from the Golgi that contain acid hydrolases. Once fused, these endosomes eventually develop into lysosomes. Lysosome Function Lysosomes act as the garbage disposal of a cell. They are active in recycling the cells organic material and in the intracellular digestion of macromolecules. Some cells, such as white blood cells, have many more lysosomes than others. These cells destroy bacteria, dead cells, cancerous cells, and foreign matter through cell digestion. Macrophages engulf matter by phagocytosis and enclose it within a vesicle called a phagosome. Lysosomes within the macrophage fuse with the phagosome releasing their enzymes and forming what is known as a phagolysosome. The internalized material is digested within the phagolysosome. Lysosomes are also necessary for the degradation of internal cell components such as organelles. In many organisms, lysosomes are also involved in programmed cell death. Lysosome Defects In humans, a variety of inherited conditions can affect lysosomes. These gene mutation defects are called storage diseases and include Pompes disease, Hurler Syndrome, and Tay-Sachs disease. People with these disorders are missing one or more of the lysosomal hydrolytic enzymes. This results in the inability of macromolecules to be properly metabolized within the body. Similar Organelles Like lysosomes, peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain enzymes. Peroxisome enzymes produce hydrogen peroxide as a by-product. Peroxisomes are involved in at least 50 different biochemical reactions in the body. They help to detoxify alcohol in the liver, form bile acid, and break down fats. Eukaryotic Cell Structures In addition to lysosomes, the following organelles and cell structures can also be found in eukaryotic cells: Cell membrane: Protects the integrity of the interior of the cell.Centrioles: Help to organize the assembly of microtubules.Cilia and Flagella: Aid in cellular locomotion.Chromosomes: Carry heredity information in the form of DNA.Cytoskeleton: A network of fibers that support the cell.Endoplasmic Reticulum: Synthesizes carbohydrates and lipids.Nucleus: Controls cell growth and reproduction.Ribosomes: Involved in protein synthesis.Mitochondria: Provide energy for the cell.

Alcoholism and Its Effects on a Family Essay - 1592 Words

Alcoholism and Its Effects on a Family Alcoholism, although thought mostly of its impact on the alcoholic themselves, it is also a very present problem in the ruining of his or her friends and their families lives. Someone who may be a fully functional, great person to his or her family may be extremely dangerous, dishonest, and destructive while they are under the influence of alcohol. This instance occurs in The Glass Castle with Rex Walls and also occurs regularly in our society today, such as abusive parents, and husbands. Without alcohol Rex was intelligent, responsible, honest, and a overall†¦show more content†¦This entry parallels Rex Walls behavior by showing the outcome and the effects on a family suffering from a father or husband abusing alcohol and becoming a destructive monstrosity. Congruent to the article previously mentione d, Rex Walls demise in the Glass Castle is imposed to of been caused by his excessive drinking during his life. The fact was that, although Dad was only fifty- nine, he had been smoking four packs of cigarettes a day since he was thirteen, and by this time he was also putting away a good two quarts of booze daily. He was, as he had put it many a time, completely pickled.(Walls 278- 279) Considering the circumstances Rex Walls was fortunate that he had lived as long as he did. Although alcohol plays a substantial part in physical and mental destruction, it also has caused Rex and a cornucopia of other alcoholics to be dishonest and break promises. The most essential promise was that he would construct a Glass castle for their family to reside in. 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Analysis Of Mahindra And Mahindra - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2395 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Marketing Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? K. C. Mahindra is the person who established Mahindra and Mahindra when he visited United States of America as Chairman of the India Supply Mission. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Analysis Of Mahindra And Mahindra" essay for you Create order When he met Barney Roos who invented general purpose vehicle or Jeep who was the inspiration for K. C. Mahindra. K. C. Mahindra Brothers joined with Ghulam Mohammed. And Mahindra Mohammed was set up as franchise for assembling jeeps from Willys, USA on October 2nd, 1945.After Two years Mahindra Mohammed changed its name to Mahindra Mahindra. Mahindra Mahindra grown in size and stature and it also occupied a premier position in all key sectors of economy. Mahindra Mahindra group is engaged in an ambitious and prolonged penetration into the global arena. DIFFERENT VEHICLES IN MAHINDRA MAHINDRA: FIG a: Indias first Prime Minister. FIG b: Mahindra Scorpio A passenger in the past FIG c: The electric car of Mahindra and FIG d: Mahindra tractor. its name is Mahindra REVA. FIG e: Mahindra Jeeps are used FIG f: Two wheeler model in Mahindra Mahindra for daily transport in Agra. and its name is Mahindra Flyte. The company encapsulated its ambition, spirit and inspiration from golden words of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru: The woods are lovely, dark and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep. The golden words are translated into many more milestones to be set up before it rest. Today, It has evolved into a premium SUV(Sport Utility Vehicle) and MUV(Multi Utility Vehicle) with a large number of cars in the Indian car market. Today in the Indian car market we can see three types of Mahindra cars they are Mahindra Bolero, Mahindra Maxx, Mahindra Scorpio. In the present scenario Mahindra Mahindra total turnover is of about 6 billion dollars. Organization analysis: Mission/Vision Goals and Objectives Strategy followed Vision: Indians are second in the world in manufacturing automobiles. The founders of our nation and our company passionately believed by us. We will prove them right by believing in ourselves and by making MM Ltd. known worldwide for the quality of its product and services. And its new innovations. The important goal of Mahindra Mahindra is to provide highly technological innovative product and services . E-business Initiatives and by out sourcing of technology Products that redefined the market By 2015 Mahindra Mahindra wants to enter almost all continents in the world. Joint ventures, acquisition and merger with different players in other countries Foreign competition. Mission of Anand Mahindra: We dont have a group-wide mission statement. Our core purpose is what makes all of us want to get up and come to work in the morning. Mr. Mahindra awards: Rajiv Gandhi Award 2004 for outstandin g contribution in business field. From President of French Republic as Knight of the Order of Merit. In the year 2005 from Auto Monitor as Person of the year. From American India Foundation 2005 Leadership Award for his, and the Mahindra Mahindra group for its commitment to CSR(Corporate Social Responsibility). CNBC Asia Business Leader Award for the year 2006. Business Man of the year 2007 from Business India. Business Leader of the year 2009 by Economic Times. Miles stones of Mahindra Mahindra: In 1948 Mahindra Mahindra LTD associated with UK for Steel trading business. In 1957 Mahindra Owen established- a joint venture with Rubery Owen Company LTD, UK. In 1969 the Company entered the world market which exports utility vehicles and spare parts. In 1975 Mahindra Engines developed an diesel engine for its vehicles. In 1982 the Mahindra brand tractors were launched. In 1986 Tech Mahindra (formerly known as Mahindra British Telecom) is establ ished. In 1994 Mahindra group created 6 Strategic Business Units they are: Automotive or Automobiles, Trading, Farm Equipment, Infrastructure, Financial Services, Information Technology(earlier it is Telecom and Software) and Systech(earlier it is MSAT). In 1999 Mahindra group launched a 3-wheeler vehicle which is environmental friendly, a battery-operated. In the year 2007 Mahindra group focused on health and the environment. It launched Mahindra Hariyali, which aims to add 1 million trees to Indias green cover and it also launched Lifeline Express. In the year 2007 Tech Mahindra LTD launched Tech Mahindra Foundation on June 13th 2007. These are the some of the milestones of Mahindra Mahindra groups. FOUR Is of Mahindra Mahindra: The four Is: INNOVATIONS. INFRASTRUCTURE. INVESTIMENT. INSTITUTIONS. INNOVATIONS: Mahindra Mahindra is one of the top industries in India. The director of the Mahindra Mahindra, Anand Mahindra, put innovation is the core of its growth strategy. The radical innovation is successful in managing the balance between the structured processes and the creation of an environment. According to this MM group: Innovation should start with the insight about customer, which the Mahindra Mahindra group found by going to fields and observing the lives of farmers. And this group found that the tractors were used for personal use. The Mahindra Mahindra group encourages the experiments. The new inventions should add value to companys bottom line that is nothing but profit. The important point is that great products should have great design. Thus Mahindra Mahindra took this initiative and made the culture of innovation. INFRASTRUCTURE: The Mahindra Mahindra infrastructure is a JV between Mahindra Group and International Finance Corporation. It works close association with global companies to bring world class technologies and practices. It mainly focus on ownership, development and manage ment of infrastructure projects. It is becoming the leading infrastructure developer in the country. INSTITUTIONS: The Mahindra Mahindra group is placed in all sectors like Telecommunications and it is named as Tech Mahindra. Software, Mahindra Mahindra came to software field after buying Satyam company and it is named as Mahindra Satyam Mahindra Mahindra also has its recognition in the Infrastructure and it is named as Mahindra Infrastructure Developers. In this it also have holiday resorts it named as Mahindra Holidays and Resort LTD (MHRIL) Mahindra Mahindra is one of the top industry in India for automobiles and it is the starting point of Mahindra Mahindra company. Mahindra Mahindra also involved in financial sector and its name is Mahindra Mahindra Financial Service LTD. Mahindra Mahindra Group also have Mahindra Special Services which was established in 2001 as a separate division in Mahindra Mahindra. Mahindra Mahindra also have Mahindra Def ence Systems which oversees the requirement of Indias Defence and Security forces. INVESTIMENTS: Mahindra Mahindra group have shares in many companies. Presently Mahindra Mahindra Group want to acquire Ssangyong and expand its business in international market. But on other hand, its investors are quite suspicious regarding the investment. In the past Mahindra Mahindra Group made many Joint Ventures and acquisitions and it has forayed into different sectors of automobiles like light, medium and heavy commercial vehicles. It also ambitious to acquire two wheelers also. PESTEL ANALYSIS ON MAHINDRA MAHINDRA: Many factors in the environment that affect the organization are: Tax changes. Trade barriers. Government policy changes. New laws. Demographic change. These are the some of the macro changes. Thus to analyze these factors we categorize them using PESTEL analysis. The PESTEL analysis includes Political, Economical, Social, Technological, Ecological, Le gal factors. Political Factors: This is a Government policy which includes what are the goods and services does a Government want, to what extent the government can subsidize firms and its priorities in political decisions and business support. The factors related to Mahindra Mahindra group: For Mahindra tractor industry the Government laid stress on mechanism of agriculture to boost food grain production. Change in Taxation policy. Regaining Agricultural dynamism is the key goal in eleventh Five year plan. ECONOMICAL FACTORS: The Economical factors which includes taxation change, inflation, interest rates, economic growth and exchange rates. The factors related to Mahindra Mahindra group: Cost of tractors in India are more cheaper when compared to other countries. 95% of tractors are on credit based. For agriculture inputs Less interest rate charged by the banks. Social Factors: As the population increases the demand on goods get increased. Thus t here will be demand for firm products and industry. As there is increase in awareness in farmers there is a need technology and thus there is a requirement of tractors and farmers can buy tractors on credit bases. To meet the farmers demand the mechanized operations are preferred to eliminate delay, also labor shortage. The other main important thing which Mahindra Mahindra do for its long-term sustainability is CSR(Corporate Social Responsibility). Mahindra Mahindra group spend Rs. 1.3 crore it is head donation in its annual report. Its activities include K. C. Mahindra Education Trust which provides education at various levels. There is another program for helping unprivileged girl child at the Mahindra foundation it is Nanhi. This are the main things which are done by Mahindra Mahindra group for its long-term sustainability. The Mahindra Mahindra also have its own foundation as Mahindra Foundation which was set up with a specific objective that to provide medical rel ief to poor people. The Mahindra foundation always very responsive to any major disasters whether it has been taken as tsunami or the Gujarat earthquake, it provided support either by financially or by sending vehicles, supplying manpower or material. Technological Factors: Increase in new Technology can create new products and process which can reduce the cost, improve the quality, lead to innovation and also reduce the life cycle of the product. This technology will benefit consumers as well as organizations. The factors related to Mahindra Mahindra group: Continuous technological innovation. Continuous improvement in technology will reduce use of Renewable energy development. Ecological Factors: It include weather and climate change. The major climate changes occurring due to Acid rain, Green-house effect, Global warming thus it is becoming significant for the firms. Thus because of this impact environmentally friendly products and processes have more demand an d also creating business opportunities. The factors related to Mahindra Mahindra group: Global Warming. Mahindra group is trying to release electric cars to reduce the pollution and also reduce the usage of renewable goods. Legal Factors: Legal factors are related to legal environment. In recent years the developing countries changed the Legal factors which affected the firms in other countries due to globalization. The legal factors related to Mahindra Mahindra group: Agricultural policy Collaboration with government which shapes policy issues. SWOT ANALYSIS: SWOT (Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, Threats) of Mahindra Mahindra group Strengths of Mahindra Mahindra group: Mahindra Mahindra is one of the top players in the world in terms of number of tractors sold. This itself shows that Mahindra Mahindra market share is the biggest strength of the company. It also have highest domestic share. The some other strengths of Mahindra Mahindra gro up: Product portfolio of Mahindra Mahindra got extended from 20hp to 30hp. There is government support for Mahindra Mahindra Group.A Availability of technically skilled people from JTC (Jiangling Tractor Company). For its next stage of expansion Mahindra Mahindra have a strategy. It not only focus on new products, it also have a programme of intensive management development to establish its leader for future. The major strength of Mahindra Mahindra is it have ability to introduce new products and process in to the market and also can generate sales for those new products. Weakness of Mahindra Mahindra group: The production is non-competitive because of high interest costs and overheads. Infrastructure of this group is Bottle neck. The companys passenger cars are based upon 3rd and 4th generation platform. In this group there is lack of efficiency for new plant layout. Another weakness of Mahindra Mahindra is multi franchise. In Mahindra Mah indra there is no effective dealership. The MM is mainly dependent on rural sector, the rural sector mainly depends on monsoon. Thus if there is bad monsoon for two consecutive years which leads to adverse impact on demand for tractors. Opportunities of Mahindra Mahindra group: Rural demand is increased. Income level is increasing. Ban for overloading of commercial vehicles. With the support of local partners there is an easy entry to Chinese market. The Mahindra Mahindra will be more competitive in Chinese market if they provided after sales service. To get more demand the Mahindra Mahindra group should export Chinese range tractors to India and Indian range tractors to China. Mahindra also entered in to software field after buying satyam and renamed it as Mahindra Satyam. Threats of Mahindra Mahindra group: Input cost got increased. Competition also increasing. The most important threat of Mahindra Mahindra is legal consideration. In China the Banking facilities are undeveloped. The MM also involved in different fields like holidays, telecom industry, financial services and resort etc. Which should have good subsidiaries from time to time if these are unmanageable this will divert the companys attention from its business which leads to destruction of shareholders value. Mahindra Mahindra will face more competition if the foreign players enter in to the tractor segment because these foreign players are technically more competitive when compared to MM. CONCULSION: Thus according to research on Mahindra Mahindra Group it shows that the company uses the Strategic Key points in the external environment for long-term sustainability and sustained success. It is the one which encourages the new ideas and also have plan to sale the new product in the market. This company is the one which try to develop new products for consumers. Mahindra Mahindra company is also socially responsible it give 1.3 crore only fr om its annual report for helping poor and unprivileged girls. Which shows that the company not only think about its profits but also feel the responsible about our country India. It is that which also do international trading with other countries. It also have a clear vision and goal which shows the dedication of the company. The mission itself says that it is not thinking about profits but it want develop ourselves. Mahindra and Mahindra tries to develop the new products which do not harm the environment and save the renewable resources example MAHINDRA REVA which is an electric car. According to research it shows that Mahindra Mahindra is one company which is respected and trusted by consumers and it is the top industry in INDIA. .

Crime Are We Becoming Too Sensitive - 1467 Words

Crimes; Are we becoming too Sensitive? As an ever growing nation many of our cultures are expanding to fit in with the new trends. However, with these new trends are we becoming too sensitive to different matters such as what we consider to be a crime or violent? According to Janne Kivivuori’s article Understanding Trends in Personal Violence: Does Cultural Sensitivity Matter he discusses how we, as a society, have become more sensitive to what is defined as being violent or a criminal act. In one of his opening lines he quoted Emile Durkheim as saying that as the crime rates decrease people adjust their views to make room for alternative crimes; He believes that society needs a certain amount of crime in order to remain balanced. In Kivivuori’s article he explains how different nations react to crimes such as domestic abuse, and public disorder, as well as how likely someone is to report propensity; then finally how they relate to the different cultural changes. Althou gh it proved difficult to find anything about this author he is a research director at the Institute of Criminology and Legal Policies; he is a sociologist, and criminologist as well as being an author (Twitter). Most of his books are written in other languages; presumably Finnish. However, besides his article, one of his books is written or translated into English and is titled Discovery of Hidden Crime: Self-Report Delinquency Surveys in Criminal Policy Context. Written in 2011 it explores theShow MoreRelatedThe Issue Of Hate Crime1284 Words   |  6 Pagesare becoming more trigger inducing and there has been an uproar of hate crimes across the nation. While both sides have contributed to the hatefulness, the way that the hate is manifested is more rampant among supporters of Trump. This is seen through the way that the hate crime rate has gone up since November 8th. In more ways than one Trump’s election into office has given these people that have hate in them a pass, o f sorts, to act on that hate and victimize others. Hate cannot be a crime butRead MoreThe Negative Effects Of Media Violence In The Media754 Words   |  4 Pageshe affected by the violence in media, when they are at a small age. When adults, some can be more aggressive than others, and some may commit more crimes than others. Over 1,000 case studies have proven that media violence can have negative effects on children. It increases aggressiveness and antisocial behavior, makes them less sensitive to violence and to victims of violence, and it increases their appetite for more violence in entertainment and in real life. According to manyRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized? Essay1011 Words   |  5 Pageslegalizing every drug it will bring forth fundamental changes that will improve the social quality of America. In Gore Vidal essay, the author argued that there is a way to stop most drug addition and in a very short time. However, before we talk about Gore Vidal solution, we must talk about the main concern with drugs, addiction. Once a user has developed an addiction, it makes it increasingly difficult for that person to stop. Their addiction may affect aspects such as money, health, and their personalRead MoreThe Criminal Justice System Of The San Diego Sheriff s Department For 23 Years998 Words   |  4 Pageshave a successful career in law enforcement. Then he said that the criminal justice system is slowly adapting to a more diverse society as the Supreme Court makes major decisions and new laws are passed. He also says that since society is becoming more sensitive about race law enforcement must be sure to be politically correct when handling situations. He noticed that departments are adjusting their hiring process in an effort to have a more accurate ratio that better represents the population thatRead MoreThe Cane Toad : An Invasive Species Problem1561 Words   |  7 Pagesto support the same level of diversity as they were when the area was a whole, and this ends to some species becoming endangered, even sometimes extinct (Kapoor). A study conducted in a Michigan forest that was fragmented due to rapid urbanization showed that predation increased for many bird species and reproductive success also declined by seventy six percent due to their habitats becoming exponentially smaller. This can also be observed with the lizard P sammodromus algirus. Predation pressure wasRead More Media Violence Essay812 Words   |  4 PagesMedia Violence   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Within the last few years, media violence is rapidly becoming a â€Å"hot† topic among many researchers and parents. 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When we typically think of crimes committed against us, we could probably nameRead More Internet Crime Essay1429 Words   |  6 PagesInternet Crime New times bring new crimes. Actually, as time moves on and our world becomes more technologically dependant, the same old time-tested crimes evolve to fit the arena of the Net. To be specific, the most common Internet crimes are forgery, assault, fraud, and theft.[1] Identity Identity—it’s our most valuable commodity. It defines who we are and is essential to doing business and carrying on personal relationships. But on the Net, identity is ambiguous. To paraphrase MicrosoftsRead MoreCyber Crime And Criminal Justice1420 Words   |  6 Pages Cyber Crime in Criminal Justice James Franklin Florida International Abstract The Internet is the connection of computer networks that link billions of devices worldwide. Every day the Internet is getting bigger and bigger bringing the world even closer. Unfortunately, with the growth of the Internet, this has created more problems for the Cyber World. While the justice system is attempting to handle this issue, it is becoming too consistent and numerous individualsRead MoreDoxagram Effect Essay1740 Words   |  7 Pagesthese questions, you are vulnerable to the Doxagram effect. Computer technology and security are at increased risk for being â€Å"hacked*.† (*Almost all of today’s computer or electronic related crimes are referred to as hacking which is not necessarily accurate.) Hypothetically envision yourself discussing sensitive information with another individual, now consider the fact that another individual, such as a member of the hacker group Doxagram, could access that information without your knowledge. It is

Criminology Class Notes Free Essays

string(97) " the working class would eventually lead to class conflict and the end of the capitalist system\." Criminology – Class Notes for Chapters 1 through 10, and 12 (Full Course Materials) Chapter 1 – Crime and Criminology What is Criminology? An academic discipline that uses scientific methods to study the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior. What Do Criminologists Do? Criminal Statistics/Crime Measurement involves calculating the amount and trends of criminal activity and focuses on creating valid and reliable measures of criminal behavior. This is done by an analysis of the activities of police and court agencies. We will write a custom essay sample on Criminology Class Notes or any similar topic only for you Order Now Measuring criminal activity not reported to the police by victims. Identifying the victims of crime. Developing Theories of Crime Causation Criminological orientations: Psychological – crime as a function of personality, development, social learning, or cognition (understanding). Biological – antisocial behavior as a function of biochemical, genetic, and neurological factors. Sociological – criminal behavior as a product of social forces including neighborhood conditions, poverty, socialization, and group interaction. Criminologists may use innovative methods to test theory. For example, the use of magnetic resonance imaging to assess the brain function of male batterers. The true cause of crime is still problematic – given similar conditions, why do some people choose crime while others do not? Understanding and Describing Criminal Behavior – Research of Specific Criminal Types and Crime Patterns 50 years ago, researchers focused on perceived major crimes including rape, murder, and burglary. Today, some researchers focus on crimes including stalking, cyber crime, terrorism, and hate crimes. Example: Terrorism and the terrorist personality a. Mental illness is not a critical factor in explaining terrorist behavior, most terrorists are not â€Å"psychopaths. † b. There is no â€Å"terrorist personality. † c. Histories of childhood abuse/trauma and themes of perceived injustice and humiliation are often prominent in terrorist biographies but do not help to explain terrorism. Penology: Punishment, Sanctions, and Corrections Penology is concerned with the correction and sentencing of known criminal offenders. While some criminologists may advocate rehabilitation, others may advocate capital punishment and mandatory sentences. Criminologists as a whole are concerned with evaluating the effectiveness and impact of crime control programs. Victimology Criminologists who study victimization have found that criminals are at greater risk for victimization than non-criminals. Additionally, victims may be engaging in high-risk behavior, such as crime, which increases their victimization. A History of Criminology The scientific study of crime and criminality is a relatively recent development. During the Middle Ages (1200-1600) people who violated social and religious norms were viewed as being witches or possessed by demons. Torture was used to extract confessions, and criminals received harsh penalties, including whipping, branding, maiming, and execution. In the mid 1700s, Italian professor Cesare Beccaria developed a theory that human behavior is driven by a choice between the amount of pleasure gained over the amount of pain or punishment experienced. He argued that in order to reduce or stop criminal behavior, the punishment should be swift, certain, and severe. This theory of â€Å"free will† became known as the classical theory. Classical criminology – the theoretical perspective suggesting that (1) people have free will to choose criminal or conventional behaviors; (2) people choose to commit crime for reasons of greed or personal need; and (3) crime can be controlled only by the fear of criminal sanctions. Positivist Criminological Theory – holds that most criminal behavior is the result of social, psychological, and even biological influences. Positivism is the branch of social science that uses the scientific method of the natural sciences and suggests that human behavior is a product of social, biological, psychological, or economic factors. Biological Determinism Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) is considered the â€Å"father of criminology. † Lombroso’s theory of anthropological criminology essentially stated that criminality was inherited, and that someone â€Å"born criminal† could be identified by physical defects, which confirmed a criminal as savage. Lombroso’s strict biological determinism is no longer taken seriously. Biosocial theory – Criminologists have recently linked crime and biological traits, and have looked at the link between physical and social traits and their influence on behavior (which also take into account social and environmental conditions). Sociological Criminology – Variables such as age, race, gender, socioeconomic status and ethnicity have been shown to have been shown to have a significant relationship with certain categories and patterns of crime. The foundations of sociological criminology can be traced to Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874) and Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). It employs the use of social statistics to investigate the influence of social factors on the propensity to commit crime. These factors include age, sex, season, climate, population composition, and poverty. According to Durkheim, crime is normal, inevitable, and is useful and occasionally even healthful for society (as it can pave the way for social change). Drawing from Durkheim, sociologists have examined the ways that anomie (i. e. , a breakdown of social norms) can produce deviance (a departure from accepted standards of behavior) in communities. The Chicago School Criminologists from the University of Chicago including Robert Ezra Park (1864-1944), Ernest W. Burgess (1886-1966), and Louis Wirth (1897-1952) determined that social forces operating in urban areas create a crime-promoting environment; crime is a social phenomenon. This challenged the widely held belief that criminals were biologically or psychologically impaired or morally inferior. These criminologists felt that crime could be eradicated by improving social and economic conditions. Chicago School criminologist Walter Reckless hypothesized that crime occurs when children develop an inadequate self-image, rendering them incapable of controlling their misbehavior. Socialization Views Research during the 1930s and 1940s linked criminal behavior to the quality of an individual’s relationship to important social processes, including education, family life, and peer relations. Edwin Sutherland, the preeminent American criminologist, noted that people learn criminal attitudes from older, more experienced offenders. Conflict theory – the view that human behavior is shaped by interpersonal conflict and that those who maintain social power will use it to further their own ends. Karl Marx (1818-1883), is the author of Communist Manifesto – a description of oppressive labor conditions prevalent during the rise of industrial capitalism. Marx felt that the character of every society is determined by its mode of production, and that the economic system controls all aspects of human life. Exploitation of the working class would eventually lead to class conflict and the end of the capitalist system. You read "Criminology Class Notes" in category "Essay examples" The social upheaval of the 1960s prompted criminologists to analyze the social conditions in the United States that promoted class conflict and crime. A critical criminologist examines and analyzes the social conditions that promote class conflict and crime. Is crime a product of the capitalist system? Developmental Criminology Delinquency research in the 1940s and 1950s conducted by Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck that focused on the early onset of delinquency as an indication of a criminal career. The most important factors related to persistent offending was family relations. Children with low intelligence, a background of mental disease, and a mesomorph physique (a human physical type that is marked by greater than average muscular development) were most likely to become persistent offenders. Contemporary Criminology Classical theory had evolved into Rational Choice Theory – the view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act. Lombrosian biological positivism has evolved into contemporary biosocial and psychological trait theory views. Trait theory – the view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits. The original Chicago School sociological vision has transformed into Social Structure Theory – the view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime. Social Process Theory – the view that criminality is a function of people’s interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society. Social process theorists now focus on upbringing and socialization. Many criminologists still view social and political conflict as the root cause of crime. The Gluecks’ pioneering research has influenced a new generation of developmental theorists. Deviant or Criminal? How Criminologists Define Crime Deviance is any action that departs from the social norms of society. A deviant act becomes a crime when it is deemed socially harmful or dangerous; it will then be specifically defined, prohibited, and punished under the criminal law. Crime and deviance are often confused. The shifting definition of deviant behavior is closely associated with our concepts of crime. For example, are drawings of naked (fictional) children acts of deviance or criminal acts? Individuals, institutions, or government agencies may mount a campaign aimed at convincing the public and lawmakers that what is considered a deviant behavior is actually dangerous and must be criminalized. An example is Harry Anslinger’s â€Å"moral crusade,† in the 1930s, urging the criminalization of marijuana. The Concept of Crime Criminologists align themselves with one of several schools of thought regarding what constitutes criminal behavior and what causes people to engage in criminality. The Consensus View of Crime Crimes are behaviors that all elements of society consider to be repulsive. The criminal law reflects the values, beliefs, and opinions of society’s mainstream. It implies that crime is a function of the beliefs, morality, and rules inherent in Western civilization, and that laws apply equally to all members of society. The Conflict View of Crime This theory depicts society as a collection of diverse groups that are in constant and continuing conflict. Groups, able to do so, assert political power to use the law and criminal justice system to advance their economic and social positions. Criminal laws are viewed as acts created to protect the haves from the have-nots. The poor go to prison, and the wealthy receive lenient sentences for even the most serious breaches of law. The Interactionist View of Crime The definition of crime reflects the preferences and opinions of people who hold social power. These people use their influence to impose their definition of right and wrong on the rest of the population. Criminals are individuals that society labels as outcasts or deviants because they have violated social rules. Crimes are outlawed behaviors because society defines them that way, not because they are inherently evil or immoral acts. Interactionists see criminal law as conforming to the beliefs of â€Å"moral crusaders,† and are concerned with shifting moral and legal standards. Crime and the Criminal Law The concept of criminal law has been recognized for over 3,000 years. Code of Hammurabi — Law code issued during the reign of Hammurabi of Babylon (1780 BCE [Before our Common Era]). It called for compensation (restitution) for a robbery victim if the thief was not caught. This was thought to be fair because the state failed to maintain law and order. Since the state was responsible for restitution, the code reduced feuds and vengeance between families. Since this time, restitution has been in all criminal codes. Mosaic Code (1200 BCE) It is not only the foundation of Judeo-Christian moral teachings but is also a basis for the U. S. legal system. The code noted prohibitions against acts including murder, theft, perjury, and adultery . Common Law Judge-made law that came into existence during the reign of English King Henry II (1154-1189), when royal judges began to publish their decisions in local cases. A fixed body of legal rules develop from published judicial decisions. If a new rule was successfully applied in a number of different cases, it would become a precedent. Precedents would then be commonly applied in all similar cases – hence the term common law. Mala in se and mala prohibita We can categorize crimes as either mala in se or mala prohibita. Mala in se crimes are crimes such as murder, rape, or assault that are considered wrong in themselves, based on shared values. Mala prohibita crimes are not wrongs in themselves but are punished because they are prohibited by the government. There is often a lack of consensus about whether such actions (e. g. , use of marijuana, gambling, prostitution) should be illegal. People’s views of the seriousness of various crimes depend on their race, sex, class, and victimization experience. We may also categorize crimes as felonies (serious offenses) or misdemeanors (minor or petty crimes). Social Goals of Contemporary Criminal Law Enforcing social control Discouraging revenge Expressing public opinion and morality Deterring criminal behavior Punishing wrongdoing Creating equity Maintaining social order The Evolution of Criminal Law Criminal law is constantly evolving to reflect social and economic conditions. Change may be prompted by highly publicized cases that generate fear and concern. Criminal law may change due to shifts in culture and social conventions . For example, in Lawrence v. Texas, the U. S. Supreme Court held that laws banning sodomy between consenting adults in a private residence were unconstitutional because they violated the due process rights of citizens because of their sexual orientation. Ethical Issues in Criminology – What and Whom to Study ? For criminological researchers, a definite ethical dilemma is presented when the data one collects is in fundamental opposition to the values and objectives of his or her funding agency. This is becoming an increasingly important ethical issue to consider as more criminological research projects are being funded by various external sources ranging from private enterprises to government initiatives. When confronted with such a conflict of interest, researchers are faced with the decision of whether to censor certain information to protect the mission of their funding agency, or alternatively to go against this mission in the interest of academic integrity. For example, a study funded by the private Corrections Corporation of America that asked researchers to compare the recidivism rates of offenders housed in state funded versus privately funded (like CCA) correctional facilities. Criminologists have focused on the poor and minorities while ignoring groups including middle-class white-collar crime and organized crime. Methods used in conducting research must ensure that: The subjects are randomly selected and are fully informed about the purpose of the research. The information must remain confidential, and the sources of information must be protected. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: In order to better understand the workings and motivations of a criminal gang, would it be ethical for a criminologist to hang out with gang members and watch as they commit crime? Should the criminologist report observed criminal gang behavior to the police? Which acts, now legal, would you make criminal, and which currently criminal acts would you legalize? Chapter 2- The Nature and Extent of Crime What is the primary sources of crime data? The FBI’s Uniformed Crime Reporting (UCR) is the most cited source of U. S. crime statistics. The UCR Program publishes an annual document containing accounts of crimes known to police and information on arrests received on a voluntary basis from 17,000 state and local law enforcement agencies throughout the U. S. Part I crimes – the most serious – murder and non-negligent manslaughter; forcible rape; robbery; aggravated assault; burglary; larceny; arson; motor vehicle theft. Homicide is the most accurate and valid UCR statistic Part II crimes – all less serious crimes, including other assaults; forgery and counterfeiting; fraud; embezzlement; stolen property (buying, receiving, possessing); vandalism; weapons (carry, possessing, etc. ); prostitution; sex offenses; drug abuse violations; gambling; offenses against the family and children; driving under the influence; liquor laws; drunkenness; disorderly conduct; vagrancy; all other offenses (except traffic). Unfounded or false complaints are eliminated, and the number of actual known offenses is reported whether or not an arrest is made. Cleared crimes are also reported – cleared via an arrest, charging, and being turned over for prosecution; or cleared by exceptional means (ex. , suspect left the country). Validity of the UCR The UCR’s accuracy has long been suspect. Many serious crimes are not reported to police. Victims may consider the crime unimportant. Victims may not trust the police. Victims may not have property insurance. Victims fear reprisals. Victims may be involved in illegal activities themselves. Criticisms aside, the UCR continues to be one of the most widely used source of crime statistics. It is collected in a careful and systematic way. Measurement of year to year change accurate because any problems are stable over time. The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) is the result of efforts to provide a more comprehensive and detailed UCR; the NIBRS collects additional data on each reported crime incident, including a brief account of the incident, arrest, victim, and offender. Crime data may also be collected by means of survey research. People are asked about attitudes, beliefs, values, characteristics, and experiences with crime and victimization. The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Nationwide survey of individual and household victimization conducted by the U. S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of Justice Statistics. It addresses the nonreporting issue. The NCVS sample size is 76,000 households and 135,000 individuals age 12 and older. Households stay in the sample for three years with new households rotated into the sample on an ongoing basis. In 1993, the NCVS was redesigned to provide detailed information on frequency and nature of rape, sexual assault, personal robbery, aggravated and simple assault, household burglary, theft, motor vehicle theft. Victim information provided in the NCVS includes age, sex, race, ethnicity, marital status, income, and education level. Crime information included in the NCVS includes time, place, use of weapons, nature of injury, and economic consequences. Validity of the NCVS It is a more complete picture of the nation’s crime problem, and addresses the nonreporting issue. It helps us to understand why crimes are not reported to police The NCVS has methodological problems, however. There may be an overreporting due to victims’ misinterpretation of events. There may be underreporting due to victims’ embarrassment, fear, or forgetfulness. The future of the NCVS Its effectiveness has been undermined by budget limitations, and its sample size and methods of data collection have been altered. Multiple years of data are now combined in order to comment on change over time – this is less desirable than year-to-year change. Criminologists may also measure crime by the use of self-report surveys. Participants are asked to describe their recent and lifetime participation in criminal activity. Most self-report surveys focus on juvenile delinquency and youth crime. Validity of Self-Reports Expecting people to admit illegal acts is unreasonable. Some people exaggerate, forget, or are confused about their criminal acts. Self-reports may measure only nonserious, occasional delinquents while ignoring hard-core chronic offenders who may be institutionalized. â€Å"Monitoring the Future Survey† was an effort to improving the reliability of self-reports. Since 1978, the Monitoring the Future survey, conducted by the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research (ISR), has surveyed high school students across the U. S. It has shown that a surprising number of â€Å"typical teenagers† reported involvement in serious criminal behavior. If accurate, the MTF survey data indicate a much greater crime problem than the UCR and NCVS. Evaluating Crime Data UCR – For serious crimes, the arrest data can provide a meaningful measure of criminal activity that other data sources cannot provide. Much criminological research is based on the UCR. NCVS – Includes unreported crime and personal characteristics of victims. It relies on personal recollections. The data consists of estimates based on limited samples of the US population, and does not include data on crime patterns, including murder and drug abuse Self-report surveys – can provide information on personal characteristics of offenders, and rely on the honesty of criminal offenders and drug abusers. Crime Trends 1833-1860: gradual increase in the crime rate, especially violent crime Post-Civil War: Crime rate increased significantly for 15 years. 1880-WWI: Reported crimes decreased. Steady decline until the Depression (about 1930) when another crime wave was recorded. 1930 – 1960: Crime rates increased gradually. The homicide rate peaked around 1930. 1970s: The homicide rate sharply increased. Trends in Officially Recorded Crime 980-1990: Sharp increase in rates of robbery, motor vehicle theft, and homicide. There was also an increase in youth firearm homicide rates (adult homicide rates fell). Since 1990: Numbers of crime in decline. There has been a significant drop in UCR violent crimes, including murder, rape, robbery, and assault. The violence rate has dropped almost 40%. Property crime rates have also declined – a 10% decline in past decade. Homicide rate held relatively steady from 1950 – mid-1960. Homicide rate hit a peak of 10. 2 per 100,000 in 1980. 1980-1991: Homicide rate fluctuated between 8 and 10 per 100,000. 991-2008: Homicide rate dropped more than 40% supporting the fact that the overall crime rate is in remission. Trends in Victimization Similar to the UCR, NCVS data indicate that victimizations have declined significantly during the past 30 years. 1973: 44 million victimizations Today: 23 million victimizations What the Future Holds Future crime rates may increase due to the large number of children who will enter their crime prone years. Future crime rates may also be offset by the aging of the population – large number of senior citizens. Technological and social factors may shape the direction of the crime rate. Technological developments have resulted in new classes of crime. Some argue that the narcissistic youth culture that stresses materialism is being replaced by more moralistic cultural values that may moderate potential crime rate growth. It is too early to predict if the overall downward trend in crime rates will continue into the foreseeable future. Crime Patterns The Ecology of Crime Day, season and climate – Most reported crimes occur during the warm summer months of July and August. Exceptions: Murders and robberies occur frequently in December and January. Crime rates are higher on the first day of the month. Temperature – crime rates seem to increase with rising temperatures and then begin to decline at 85 degrees when it may be too hot for any physical exertion. Some criminologists believe that crime rates rise with temperature. Research also indicates that a rising temperature will cause crimes such as domestic violence to continually increase, while other crimes (such as rape) will decline after temperatures rise to an extremely high level. Extreme temperatures cause stress and tension that prompts the body to release stress hormones. Hormonal activity has been linked to aggression. Regional differences Large, urban areas have the highest violence rates. Rural areas have the lowest per capita crime rates with the exception of low population resort areas with large seasonal populations. Use of Firearms Firearms are involved in about 20% of robberies, 10% of assaults, and over 5% of rapes. Two-thirds of all murders involve firearms; most are handguns. Criminals of all races/ethnicities are equally likely to use firearms in violent crimes. Ongoing debate over gun control Criminologists favoring gun control: The proliferation of handguns and the high rate of lethal violence they cause is the single most significant factor separating the US crime problem from that of the rest of the developed world. Criminologists opposed to gun control: Kleck and Gertz have found that personal gun use can be a deterrent to crime. Social Class, Socioeconomic Conditions and Crime Crime is generally a lower-class phenomenon. Instrumental crimes occur when those on the lowest rung of the social ladder are unable to obtain desired goods and services via conventional means and may resort to illegal activities to obtain them. Expressive crimes: Those living in poverty engage in disproportionate amounts of crimes as a result of their rage, frustration, and anger against society. Alcohol and drug use is common in impoverished areas and helps to fuel violent crime. UCR data indicate crime rates in inner-city, high-poverty areas are higher than those in suburban or wealthy areas. Surveys of prisoners consistently indicate prisoners were members of the lower class and unemployed or under-employed in the years prior to incarceration. As alternative explanation is that the relationship between official crime nd social class is a function of law enforcement practices. Social class and Self-reports Juveniles in all social classes commit crime. Serious crime is more prevalent in socially disorganized lower class areas. Less serious offenses are spread more evenly throughout the social structure. Community-level indicators of poverty and disorder are associated with the most serious violent crimes. Age and Crime Age is inversely related to criminality. Younger people commit more crime than older people and this relationship has been stable over time. The peak age for property crimes is believed to be 16. The peak age for violent crime is believed to be 18. Young people are arrested at a disproportionate rate to their numbers in the population. Adults age 45 and older account for a third of the population but account for less than 10% of crime arrests. The elderly comprise 12 % of the population but less than 1% of arrests. Aging out of crime People commit less crime as they age. Crime peaks in adolescence and then declines rapidly thereafter. Adults develop the ability to delay gratification, start wanting to take responsibility for their behavior, and adhere to conventional norms. Research: People who maintain successful marriages are more likely to desist from antisocial behavior than those whose marriages fail. Age and biology Some criminologists believe the key to abstaining and aging out is linked to human biology. Neurotransmitters (serotonin and dopamine) play a role in aggression. Dopamine facilitates offensive behavior. During adolescence, dopamine increases while serotonin is reduced. Change in brain chemistry parallels the aging out process. Gender and Crime Male crime rates are much higher than female crime rates. The male-female arrest ratio is almost four males to one female. Murder arrests: Eight males to one female Self-report data (Monitoring the Future data as an example) indicate males self-report more crime but not to the degree suggested by official data. Over the past decade the male arrest rates have declined by 9%; female arrest rates have increased by 9%. Increased female arrest rates especially for robbery and burglary Conclusion: During the slowing of the overall crime rates, women have increased their participation in crime. Trait differences Lombroso’s masculinity hypothesis – a few â€Å"masculine† females were responsible for the handful of crimes that women committed. These women lacked typical female traits of piety, maternity, undeveloped intelligence, and weakness. Such viewpoints are no longer taken seriously. Criminologists still link antisocial behavior to hormonal influences, however. Male sex hormones (androgens) account for aggressive male behavior. Socialization Differences Girls are socialized to be less aggressive than boys. Cognitive Differences Superior verbal ability may allow girls and women to talk rather than fight. Social/Political Differences Liberal feminist theory – female crime rates linked to the social and economic roles of women in society. Lower female crime rates explained by women’s â€Å"second-class† economic and social positions. Female and male crime rates would converge as women’s social roles change and became more like men’s. The rapid increase in female crime rates seems to support liberal feminist theory. Race and Crime Minority group members are involved in a disproportionate share of criminal activity. African Americans comprise 12% of the population, yet account for 38% of violent crime arrests, 30% of property crime arrests, and a disproportionate amount of Part II arrests. What do data indicate? Data may reflect true racial differences in the crime rate. Data may reflect bias in the justice process. Monitoring the Future and other self-report data find little evidence of racial disparity in crimes committed. The delinquent behavior of black and white teenagers are generally similar. Differences in arrest statistics may indicate a differential selection process by police. Critics charge police officers routinely use racial profiling to stop African Americans and search their cars without probable cause or reasonable suspicion. It is improbable that police discretion and/or bias, alone, could account for proportions of minorities arrested for violent crimes, however. Racism and discrimination Some criminologists view black crime as a function of socialization in society – the black family torn apart and black culture destroyed beyond recovery. Racism is still an element of daily life in the black community. It undermines confidence in the justice system and faith in social and political institutions. Racial threat theory – As the percentage of African Americans in the population increases, so does the amount of social control that the justice system aims at blacks. Significant research exists to support that the justice system may be racially biased. Black and Latino adults are less likely than whites to receive bail in violent crime cases. Minority juveniles are more likely than white juveniles to be kept in detention pending trial in juvenile court. Indigent or unemployed African Americans are more likely than whites to receive longer prison sentences. Economic and social disparity Racial and ethnic minorities are often forced to live in high crime areas. Racial and ethnic minorities face a greater degree of social isolation and economic deprivation than the white majority. Black youths are forced to attend essentially segregated, under-funded, and deteriorated schools. Family dissolution Family dissolution is tied to low employment rates among black males, leading to strained marriages. Increased risk of early death by disease and violence results in a large number of single, female-headed households in black communities. Weakened or disrupted families result in compromised social control. Divorce and separation rates are significantly associated with homicide rates in black communities. Chronic Offenders/Criminal Careers A small group of career or chronic offenders account for the majority of all criminal offenses. Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellin’s 1972 study, Delinquency in a Birth Cohort The â€Å"Chronic 6%† – boys arrested five times or more, who accounted for six percent of the total sample of 9,945 accounted for 51. 9% of all the offenses committed by the cohort, 71% of homicides, 73% of rapes, 82% of robberies, and 69% of aggravated assaults. Arrests and court experiences do little to deter the chronic offender. Female chronic offenders rare – 1% What Causes Chronicity? Early onset – Children who have been exposed to a variety of personal and social problems, at an early age, are the most at risk to repeat offending. Factors characterizing the chronic offender: problems in the home and school; getting arrested before age 15; low intellectual development; and parental drug involvement. Implications of the Chronic Offender Concept Discovery of the chronic offender has revitalized criminological theory. It is unlikely that social conditions alone can cause chronic offending. Traditional criminological theories have failed to distinguish between occasional and chronic offenders. The chronic offender has become a central focus of crime control policy. Goals of sentencing polices have shifted from rehabilitation to incapacitation. Three strikes laws – rules for repeat offenders that require long sentences without parole for conviction of a third or higher-order felony. Some states like California and Washington state have passed three strikes laws for repeat offenders. Three felony offenses require up to a life-term of imprisonment. Truth-in-Sentencing is the requirement that offenders serve a substantial portion of their sentences before release on parole (usually 85% of their sentence) for a violent crime. This policy can increase imprisonment costs. DISCUSSION TOPICS Would you answer honestly if participating in a national crime survey asking about your criminal behavior, including your drinking and drug use? Why or why not? How would your honesty and dishonesty impact self-report studies? With regard to gender differences in the crime rate, why do you think that males are more violent than females? Considering the crimes listed as Part I offenses. Are these the most serious crimes in society? Would you add or delete any crimes or behaviors to/from the list? If so, which crimes and why? Chapter 3 Victims and Victimization The Classical School of criminology emphasizes that people are rational beings and are free to choose the behaviors they engage in. Victimization theories suggest the same thing in that victims choose to engage in risky activities or choose not to take the time to make themselves less appealing to offenders. Victimology is the scientific study of victims. Victimization’s Toll on Society NCVS: 23 million victimizations per year Costs of victimization: Damaged property; pain and suffering; involvement of criminal justice system; medical costs, lost wages; reduced quality of life, fear Total loss related to criminal victimization: $450 billion annually; $1,800 per person Individual Costs Assault: $9,400 The average murder costs about $3 million. Individuals suffering a violent victimization during adolescence earn about $82,000 less than non-victims due to physical and psychological problems that impede educational and economic success. Some victims become physically disabled. Blaming the victim Innuendos and insinuations from friends, family. Victim blaming is especially painful for rape victims. Negative reactions from professionals. Negative reactions from family and friends. Negative reactions from either source reinforces uncertainty about whether the victim’s experience qualifies as rape. Sympathetic and responsive support help rape victims maintain confidence and results in willingness to report their victimizations. Long-Term Stress Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A condition with symptoms including depression, anxiety, and self-destructive behavior. It is a common problem when victims do not receive adequate support. Rape victims are particularly susceptible to PTSD. Adolescent Stress Kids who experience traumatic sexual experiences later suffer psychological deficits. Many run away to escape their environment. Others suffer post-traumatic mental problems. Stress does not end in childhood – may have low self-esteem and may be suicidal as adults. They may be re-abused as adults. Abuse as a child may lead to despair, depression, and homelessness as adults. Homeless women are likely to have suffered childhood physical and sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and likely to have a history of mental problems. Relationship Stress Victims of spouse abuse suffer an extremely high prevalence of psychological problems. Abusive spouses are likely to abuse their victims psychologically. Fear Victims fear they will be re-victimized. Victims may fear forms of crimes they have not yet experienced. People who have been assaulted fear their homes will be burglarized. Rape victims are especially fearful. People may relocate if they hear that a friend or neighbor has been victimized. Fear is escalated by media accounts of crime and violence. Antisocial Behavior People who are crime victims may be more likely to commit crime themselves. The abuse-crime phenomenon is referred to as the cycle of violence. The Nature of Victimization The Social Ecology of Victimization Location – Violent crime is more likely to take place in an open, public area during daytime or early evening. Time – Serious violent crimes (rape, aggravated assault): after 6:00 p. m. Less serious violent crimes (unarmed robberies): during the daytime Neighborhood characteristics – Central city: higher rates of theft and violence than suburban areas Murder: significantly higher risk in disorganized inner-city areas Crime in schools During, before, and after-school activities, adult supervision is minimal. Unattended valuables make attractive targets. Ages 12-18: 1. 7 million victims of nonfatal crimes at school. Eight percent of students in ninth to twelfth grades reported being threatened or injured. Twenty-two percent of ninth to twelfth graders report illegal drugs were made available to them on school property. Eighty-six percent of public schools report at least one violent crime occurred at their school. The Victim’s Household Household vulnerability Most vulnerable: African American, western, and urban homes Less vulnerable: Non-African American, Northeast Ownership: Rental homes more so than owned homes Factors impacting decreased household victimization – Population movement from urban to suburban and rural; family size has been reduced. Victim Characteristics Gender Except for rape and sexual assault, males are more likely to be victims of violent crime. Women are significantly more likely to be victimized by someone they know or with whom they live. Intimate partner violence seems to be declining. Research indicates that economic inequality is significantly related to female victimization rates. Age Young people face a much greater victimization risk than older people. Victimization risk diminishes rapidly after age 25. Elderly – vulnerable to frauds, scams, stolen checks, purse snatchings, crimes in long-term care facilities. Social status Across all gender, age, and racial groups, the poorest are the most likely to be victimized. The homeless suffer high rates of assault. The wealthy are more likely to be targets of personal theft crimes. Race and ethnicity African Americans are twice as likely as non-African-Americans to be victims of violent crimes. There has been a significant decline in victimization rates for both groups, however. Marital status Never-married individuals are victimized more those married individuals. Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk. Risk is influenced by age and lifestyle. Repeat victimization Persons and households previously victimized have significantly higher risk of revictimization. Target vulnerability – Victim’s physical weakness or psychological distress makes them easy targets. Target gratifiability – Victims have some quality, possession, skill or attribute an offender wants to obtain. Target antagonism – Victim’s characteristics arouse anger, jealousy, or destructive impulses in potential offenders The Victims and Their Criminals Males are more likely to be violently victimized by a stranger; females by a friend, acquaintance, or intimate. Crimes tend to be intraracial. Over half of all nonfatal personal crimes are committed by people known to the victim. Women are especially vulnerable to crime by people they know. Six of every ten rape or sexual assault victims state the offender was known to them. Women are more likely than men to be robbed by a friend/acquaintance. Theories of Victimization Victim precipitation theory – the view that victims may initiate, either actively or passively, the confrontation that leads to their victimization. Active precipitation – occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even attack first. Passive precipitation – occurs when victims exhibit some personal characteristic than unknowingly threatens or encourages attackers. Victim impulsivity – male and female victims score high on impulsivity tests. They may be abrasive, obnoxious, or antagonistic; they may lack self-control; they may have a physical rather than mental orientation; they may be risk takers and fail to take precautions. Research shows a strong association between victimization risk and impulsive personality. Lifestyle theories – views on how people become crime victims because of lifestyles that increase their exposure to criminal offenders. Victimization is increased by associating with young men, going out at night, living in urban areas. Victimization is reduced by staying home at night, staying out of public areas, living in rural areas. Crime is not a random occurrence; rather, a function of the victim’s lifestyle. High risk lifestyles Drinking, taking drugs, running away, getting involved in crime. Males’ lifestyles expose them to risk more so than females’ lifestyles. The greater the number of girls in a male’s peer group, the lower their chances of victimization. The greater the involvement with gangs, guns, and drugs, the greater the risk of being shot/killed. Most at risk of homicide: kids who have served time and who have a history of family violence. Lifestyle risks continue into adulthood. College lifestyle Partying and recreational drug use increase risk of victimization. Coeds face higher risk of sexual assault than do females in the general population. Criminal lifestyle Involvement in gangs – increases risk of victimization for males and females. Carrying a weapon – males who carry weapons are three times more likely to be victimized than males who do not (33% versus 10%). Deviant place theory – the view that victimization is primarily a function of where people live. The greater the exposure to dangerous places, the more likely people will become victims of crime. People are prone to victimization because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas. Neighborhood crime levels may be more significant than individual characteristics or lifestyle for determining victimization. Deviant places – Poor, densely populated, highly transient neighborhoods in which commercial and residential properties exist side-by-side. They are home to â€Å"demoralized kinds of people† who are easy targets: addicts, homeless, elderly poor. Safety precautions Effect of safety precautions is less pronounced in poor areas. The presence of numerous motivated offenders requires safety precautions. Routine Activities Theory – the view that victimization results from the interaction of three everyday factors: the availability of suitable targets, the absence of capable guardians, and the presence of motivated offenders. Suitable targets – objects of crime (persons or property) that are attractive and readily available. Crime and everyday life Crime began to increase as the country sifted from rural to urban environments. The middle class fled from inner cities to suburbs, promoting a unique set of routine activities promoting victimization. Research support for Routine Activities Theory Crime rates increased between 1960 and 1980 because the number of guardians home during the day decreased as a result of increased female participation in the workforce. As adult unemployment rates increase, the juvenile homicide arrest rates decrease. Availability and cost of goods – as costs decline, so to do burglary rates. Caring for the Victim President Ronald Reagan created the Task Force of Victims of Crime in 1982. Suggested a balance be achieved between recognizing victim’s rights and the defendant’s due process rights. As a result, Congress passed the Omnibus Victim and Witness Protection Act – Victim impact statements at sentencing in federal criminal cases Greater protection for witnesses More stringent bail laws Use of restitution in criminal cases 1984: Comprehensive Crime Control Act and Victims of Crime Act Authorized federal funding for state victim compensation and assistance projects Victim Service Programs Victim-witness assistance programs – 2,000 across the U. S. Victim Compensation Victims receive compensation from the state. Compensations programs differ. Many programs lack adequate funding and organization. Compensation for medical bills, loss of wages and future earnings, counseling, burial expenses, emergency assistance. Awards typically range from $100 to $15,000 Victim of Crime Act (1984) – money derived from penalties and fines imposed on federal offenders used to fund state compensation boards. $300 million per year. Victim Advocates Counselors who guide victims through the criminal justice process Research: rape survivors assigned victim advocates are more likely to file police reports, less likely to be treated negatively by police, report less distress from medical experiences. Court advocates – prepare victims and witnesses re: the court process. May provide counselors and transportation to and from court. May reduce victim trauma. Victim Impact statements Allowed by most jurisdictions Victim tells of victimization experiences and effects at sentencing. Research Some research shows victim impact statements result in higher incarceration ates, while other research does not show an appreciable effect. Victim-Offender Reconciliation Programs (VORPs) Mediated face-to-face encounters between victims and their attackers Over 120 programs handling 16,000 cases per year Designed for misdemeanor offenses, now also used with felony offenses Victims’ Rights Every state has a Victims’ Bill of Rights: To be notified of proceedings and the status of the defendant To be present at criminal justice proceedings To make a statement at sentencing To receive restitution from a convicted offender To be consulted before a case is dismissed or plea agreement entered To a speedy trial To keep the victim’s contact information confidential Sex offender registration laws have been adopted at federal level and by most states. Criminology in the News Following a felony assault conviction, Chris Brown was sentenced to 5 years’ probation and 180 days of community service. He is serving his community service near his home in Richmond, VA, and he has done yard work at a police horse stable, washed government cars, picked up trash, and cleaned graffiti. Additionally, Brown must undergo a year of domestic violence counseling. By November 25, 2010, Brown had completed 581 hours of community service. In January 2011, Brown completed mandated domestic violence counseling. In March 2011, Brown picked up a chair and smashed a window in a dressing room at the Good Morning America studio in Manhattan following an interview in which he is asked about his assault conviction. The studio did not press charges. During his childhood, Brown’s stepfather was apparently, abusive towards his mother. At age 11, Brown warned his mother that he would very likely go to jail before age 15 for killing his stepdad over what he’d done to her:  Ã¢â‚¬Å" I just want you to know that I love you. But  I’m gonna take a baseball bat one day while you at work, and I’m gonna kill him. † His stepfather, who lived with Brown and his mother in a trailer park, also once attempted suicide by shooting himself in the head. The bullet missed his brain but went straight through his eyes, leaving him permanently blind. Brown recalled what it was like to grow up with so much violence: â€Å"When you’re blind, your senses are heightened, like your smell, hearing, your sense of touch. You can move and maneuver around your sight. But he used to hit my mom†¦. He made me terrified all the time, terrified like I had to pee on myself. I remember one night he made her nose bleed. I was crying and thinking,  Ã¢â‚¬ËœI’m just gonna go crazy on him one day†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ I hate him to this day. † Rihanna’s Upbringing Rihanna’s childhood was marred by her father’s struggles with addictions to alcohol and crack cocaine and her parents’ marital problems—they divorced when she was 14 years old. DISCUSSION TOPICS Do you agree with the author’s assessment that a school is one of the most dangerous locations in the community? Do you think your high school was a dangerous environment? Why or why not? What would you advise female college students do to lower their risk of being sexually assaulted? How does your advice relate to the â€Å"college lifestyle? † How should male college students be advised regarding their potential for committing sexual assault? Why is it that society places more blame on females than males when it comes to sexual assault and the college lifestyle? How can this imbalance be remedied? Chapter 4 Choice Theory: Because They Want To The criminal justice system in the U. S. is based on the rational choice theory and deterrence. The criminal justice system emphasizes that criminals choose to commit crime, and thus they must be punished. This will then deter them from committing crime again. Since certainty and swiftness are impossible in the U. S. , the U. S. criminal justice system emphasizes severity. However, as the chapter notes, severity is but one of the three elements of deterrence and some argue that it is the weakest. Rational Choice Theory (Choice Theory) – the premise that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the probable costs and benefits of an illegal act. Its roots are in the classical school of criminology developed by Cesare Beccaria. The classical approach was replaced by positivist criminology that focused on internal and external factors rather than personal choice and decision making. In the late 1960s, criminologists re-embraced classical ideas. Becker argued that except for a few mentally ill people, criminals behave in rational ways when deciding to commit crime. Wilson noted that offenders value the excitement and thrill of crime, have a low stake in conformity, and are willing to take greater risks than the average person. Evaluating the Risks of Crime Personal factors – money, revenge, thrills Situational factors – target availability, security measures, police presence Burglars choose targets based on value, novelty, resale potential. The decision to commit crime is enhanced by the promise of easy gain with low risk. Those that choose to forgo crime may feel that they stand a good chance of being caught and punished. They fear the consequences of punishment; they risk losing the respect of peers, their reputation may be damaged, and they may experience guilt or shame. Crime is Both Offense and Offender-Specific Offense-specific – the idea that offenders react selectively to the characteristics of particular crimes. Offense-specific factors include: Evaluating the target yield Probability of security devices Police patrol effectiveness Availability of a getaway car Ease of selling stolen merchandise Presence of occupants Presence of neighbors Presence of guard dogs Escape routes Entry points and exits Offender-specific – the idea that offenders evaluate their skills, motives, needs, and fears before deciding to commit crime. Offender-specific factors include: Possession of necessary skills Immediate need for money or valuables Existence of legitimate financial alternatives Resources to commit the crime Fear of expected apprehension and punishment Option of alternative criminal acts Physical ability Offender’s Economic Need/Opportunity A small number of prostitutes choose to supplement their income via prostitution. Drug users report increasing their criminal involvement proportionate to the costs of their habits. Some offenders are misled about the financial rewards of crime. Evaluating personal traits and experience Career criminals learn limitations of their expertise. Criminals appear to be more impulsive and have less self-control. Some criminal opportunities are simply too good to pass up. Criminal expertise Criminals report learning techniques to help avoid detection. Women are drawn into dealing drugs learn the trade in a businesslike manner. Choosing the place of crime Criminals carefully choose where they will commit crime. Drug dealers evaluate the desirability of sales area, preferring the middle of a long block due to visual advantages. Choosing targets Burglars check if dwelling is occupied. Burglars track predictable behavior patterns of occupants. Burglars prefer working between 9:00 and 11:00 a. m. nd in the afternoon when parents are working or transporting children to and from school. Is Crime Rational? Target selection seems highly rational. Auto thieves selective in choice of targets for stripping. Burglars choose targets based on value and resale potential. Burglars like to work close to home where they blend in and will not get lost when returning home with their loot. Is Drug Use Rational? At its onset, drug use is controlled by rational decision making. Drug dealers approach their profession in a businesslike fashion. Can Violence Be Rational? Violent criminals select suitable targets based on vulnerability. Robbers choose targets in familiar areas where they have knowledge of escape routes – referred to as â€Å"awareness space. † That avoid free-standing buildings where they can be surrounded by police. They shy away from victims who may be armed and potentially dangerous. Robbers may target those with â€Å"dirty hands,† such as drug dealers. They may choose targets in order to send a message. Why Do People Commit Crime? â€Å"Edgework† – Crime is a more attractive alternative than law-abiding behavior. This is due to the adrenaline rush that comes from the exhilarating, momentary integration of danger, risk, and skill. The Seduction of Crime Katz: There are immediate benefits to criminality and seductions precede the commission of crime and draw offenders into law violations. Vanquishing opponents The thrill of getting away with crime due to personal competence – â€Å"sneaky thrills† A criminal lifestyle may be beneficial to those experiencing stress. Antisocial behavior gives adolescents the opportunity to exert control over their lives. Controlling Crime Situational crime prevention – a method of crime prevention that seeks to eliminate or reduce particular crimes in narrow settings. Criminal activity can be reduced if planners are aware of the characteristics of sites and ituations that are at risk of crime. Criminals acts avoided if: Targets are carefully guarded. The means to commit crime are controlled. Potential offenders are carefully monitored. Reducing opportunity. Defensible space – the principle that crime can be prevented or displaced by modifying the physical environment to redu ce the opportunity individuals have to commit crime. Oscar Newman’s defensible space – crime can be prevented or displaced via the use of residential designs that reduce criminal opportunity. Crime Prevention Strategies Increase the effort needed to commit crime Unbreakable glass on storefronts Locking gates, fencing yards Installing brighter lights Owner’s photo on credit cards Security devices on cars Increase the risk of committing crime Crime discouragers – people who serve as guardians of property or people Reduce the rewards of crime Marking property so it is difficult to sell Gender-neutral phone listings Tracking systems Induce guilt: increase shame Publishing â€Å"John lists† Reduce provocation Earlier closing times for bars and pubs Anti-bullying programs in schools Remove excuses Electronic roadside speed displays The Costs and Benefits of Situational Crime Prevention Hidden Benefits Diffusion – an effect that occurs when efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another. Discouragement – an effect that occurs when crime control efforts targeting a particular locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations. Hidden Costs Displacement – an effect that occurs when crime control efforts simply move or redirect offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets. Extinction – an effect that occurs when crime reduction programs produce a short-term positive effect, but benefits dissipate as criminals adjust to new conditions. Replacement – an effect that occurs when criminals try new offenses they had previously avoided because situational crime prevention programs neutralized their crime of choice. General deterrence – a crime control policy that depends on the fear of criminal penalties, convincing the potential offender that the pains associated with crime outweigh its benefits. Crime can be controlled via increasing the real or perceived threat of criminal punishment. Certainty of Punishment If the certainty of arrest, conviction, and sanctioning increases, crime rates should decline. Crime will persist if offenders believe that, if caught, they have a good chance of escaping punishment. Research indicates a direct relationship between crime rates and the certainty of punishment. Police and Certainty of Punishment Increasing the number of police officers on the street should cut the crime rate. The deterrent effect of police has been supported by research. Proactive, aggressive law enforcement is more effective than routine patrol. Severity of Punishment The threat of severe punishment should reduced the crime rate. There is little consensus regarding the severity of punishment, however. Speed of Punishment and Deterrence The faster punishment is applied and the more closely punishment is linked to the crime, the more likely it will serve as a deterrent. Deterrent effect neutralized if there is a significant time lag between apprehension and punishment. Elapsed time between conviction and execution: over ten years in many death penalty cases. Inter-relationship of severity, certainty, and speed; the factors may influence one another. Certainty of punishment seems to have a great impact than its severity or speed. Critique of General Deterrence Rationality Some offenders suffer from personality disorders that impair judgment. Elevated emotional state of sex offenders negates the deterrent effect of the law. Alcohol impedes a person’s ability to think rationally. System effectiveness American legal system is not very effective – only 10% of all serious crimes result in apprehension. Many crimes go unreported. Police discretion impacts effect of deterrence. Odds of receiving a prison sentence is less than 20 per 1,000 crimes committed. â€Å"Deterrability† Deterrence impacts people differently. Threat of formal sanctions is irrelevant to high-risk offenders. Personality and mental disorders make people immune to deterrent power of the law. Some crimes are more deterrable than others – minor offenses easier to deter; serious crimes harder to deter. Specific deterrence – the view that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that offenders will never repeat their criminal acts (recidivism). There is no clear-cut evidence that punishment effectively deters criminals. One possible exception is domestic violence. Short-term effect: when police take formal action (arrest), offenders are less likely to recidivate. Long-term effect: effect of arrest quickly decays and may actually escalate the frequency of repeat domestic violence. Arrest and punishment seems to have little effect on chronic and experienced offenders. Two-thirds of all convicted offenders are rearrested within three years of their release from prison. Incarceration may slow or delay recidivism in the short-term but the overall probability of re-arrest is not reduced. The harshest punishments may increase crime. Punishment may result in defiance rather than deterrence. Stigma of harsh punishment locks offenders into a criminal career. Criminals may believe that the likelihood of getting caught twice for the same type of crime is remote. Experiencing the harshest punishments may cause severe psychological problems. In neighborhoods where everyone has a criminal record, the effect of punishment erodes and offenders feel victimized. Incapacitation effect – the view that if more criminals are sent to prison during their prime crime years, it will reduce their lifetime opportunity to commit crime. Can Incapacitation Reduce Crime? Some experts find incapacitation reduces crime. Crime rate has dropped while prison population has risen. Economist Levitt concludes that each person behind bars results in a 15% decrease in serious crimes per year. Some experts argue against incapacitation. They feel that there is little evidence that incapacitating criminals will deter them from future criminality. Their additional views: Prison experiences expose first-time offenders to high-ri How to cite Criminology Class Notes, Essay examples

Employability Skills Development

Question: Discuss about theEmployability Skills Development . Answer: Introduction The course study is developed on the lines of pertinent skills and capabilities that is an essential pre-requisite for the prospective employee. It is built on the framework of meeting the hiring objectives of a great employer or an organization. They seek for the best qualities in a candidate; therefore students who shall introduce oneself to the employer with all the appropriate inter personal and other technical skills must develop them efficiently. This is the importance and significance of the coursework. It has equipped the participants with group work and collaborative assignments which has enabled me with several tackling capacities. The ability to communicate effectively within all levels. In order to enhance the effective communication required in an organizational set up, the course has designed some activities. These tasks will help in developing the interpersonal and occupational skills to an individual. Verbal and nonverbal communications are two of the most important modes through which interaction takes place between the employer and employee. Therefore the activities which are involved in the study of the coursework are performed in groups, which have improved my coordination and cooperation skills. The students have to showcase presentations during the term period of the coursework so that they can portray that in reality while dealing with the professionals in a workplace. In a workplace one has to communicate with staff members at different levels. Hence, I can communicate successfully in writing and verbally with individuals at all levels. Strategic planning, organization and prioritizing The three main elements of a compatible individual are his skills of strategic planning, prioritizing and organization. The various activities of the coursework in developing the employability skills of an individual or a student in this instance includes both academic and co-circular activities. The assessments that are followed in this coursework aid the individual to improve their time management skills. The management of appropriate planning and organizing in distributing their time accordingly to both co-circular and academic actions can be determined throughout this course unit. The tasks that are assigned during this coursework help in analyzing the determination and capacity of an individual in delivering a completed work within a stipulated deadline. It helps the soon-to-be-a-employer to set goals according to the date and timeline. In fact the skill of priority which has emerged from this task management has helped me to become more confident in my sets of interpersonal ski lls. I have been a chairperson and was responsible in organizing various events in every semester during the time period of the coursework. Great interpersonal skills employed in mobilizing a team Along with mutual cooperation and coordination I am also capable of fostering my interpersonal skills. I have developed my skills which I have gained during this coursework, have employed while mobilizing a team comprising of 20 members during one of the events. I have successfully implemented al the occupational and interpersonal skills. In a work set up like a huge event, one has to deal with a number of different individuals therefore; through this it has developed my perspective of tactfully handling everyone. My leadership skills can be observed from the fact that I have been chosen as the leader in many instances where the group members have invested immense faith and responsibility which I have met diligently. Conclusion The coursework has been of great consequence to my development in diverse aspects. I have gained the aptitude to converse effectively both verbally and in non verbal modes, I can organize work, plan goals and prioritize to guarantee that deadlines are met, and finally I have superior interpersonal skills along with the ability to organize teams.